Safety and community care - Free Essay Example

Handout 1: For Community Volunteers and Participants Food borne illness often referred as food poisoning or foodborne diseases are a common, life threatening and costly phenomenon but very preventable health hazards. Community safety against these diseases is vital to growing a healthy society (Cockerham, 2014).  The presence of harmful and poisonous chemicals can bring food poisoning if present in the food. Contamination of food by the various disease causing germs has been the primary cause of foodborne infections. This paper purposes to provide facts and related information about the conditions and how the risk of disease can be reduced. In the United States of America, salmonella is the single bacteria responsible for over one million cases of illnesses reported annually. According to a Centre for Disease Control (CDC) report, one million annual illnesses are reported with 19000 hospitalizations and an annual death estimate of 380 (Mowry et al., 2016). Salmonella is of different types, and in particular, Salmonella Typhimurium causes typhoid. Typhoid is a blood infection that occurs when a person ingests food or drinks water contaminated with the Salmonella bacterium Typhimurium. It is transmitted through contact with an individual with the faeces of an infected person.It is thus mostly human to a human type of transmission. The bacterium spends an average of two weeks in the human intestines before finding its way into the bloodstream through perforation of the intestinal walls. The symptoms of typhoid set in between the first week and one month after exposure to the bacterium. The rash is one of the symptoms although it doesnt manifest itself in all patients (Nathan, 2012). The neck and the abdomen get rose colored spots. The other major symptom is the fever which is and could reach 104 degrees Fahrenheit in a matter of several days. Body weakness, headaches and sometimes vomiting and diarrhea are also symptoms of typhoid. Some patients recover without treatment, but if the illness is left untreated, the walls of the intestines can become perforated and cause other abdominal complications. Besides, diarrhea if unattended to could be fatal due to dehydration. The disease can be treated mainly by use of antibiotics. Antibiotics prescribed by a medical practitioner should be adhered to. Another way for self-treatment is through rehydration of the body to replenish the water lost through sweating, vomiting, and diarrhea by drinking enough clean water. Citizens of America traveling to Africa, South America, and Asia are encouraged to practice preventive measures to avoid contracting the disease. Such countries have few washing facilities and less access to clean water and are vulnerable to typhoid breakouts. Members of the society are advised to Ensure that they drink carbonated bottled water Raw fruits and vegetables should be avoided and personally peel your fruit. Boil water if bottled water is not available Total avoidance of eating at unhygienic street eateries. Vaccination against typhoid through the oral live attenuated vaccine or shot inactivated vaccine. Research plays a pivotal role in any science related solution. Researchers are spending sleepless nights to counter the antibiotic resistance nature and improve the performance of available drugs (Laxminarayan et al., 2013). This is aimed at providing a solution to those suffering from the illness. A 35% resistance rate has been established for salmonella Typhimurium to key medications such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, ampicillin, and ciprofloxacin. Handout 2: For Community Health Care Providers Illnesses associated with ingestion of foods contaminated with disease causing microbes and pathogens are referred to as foodborne infections. Food poisoning which is caused by consumption of food containing harmful chemicals is also categorized as a foodborne illness. (Potter Hotchkiss, 2012).   These diseases pose a threat to the innocent and ignorant members of the society. It is the responsibility of health care providers and medical-practitioners to create awareness and keep the citizenry safe from these preventable diseases. The disease is sometimes fatal and costly in the cases of hospitalizations and purchasing of drugs supplies by patients. This paper seeks to bring out the clear information of how the risks caused by these diseases can be reduced. Several foodborne germs affect the populace of America at different extents. These include botulism, Listeria, Vibrio, Escherichia coli and Salmonella (Nyenje Ndip, 2013). The paper focuses on Salmonella which in its various strains cause annual illnesses of up to 1 million and 19000 cases of hospitalized patient and annual death of 380. Salmonella typhimurium is one of the serotypes of salmonella.it is often called Salmonella typhi. It is the causative bacterium for typhoid which is a blood infection. Typhoid is a disease that has been discovered to kill 25 percent of patients if left untreated. Significantly if treatment is administered on time, the death rate reduces to below 4%. When S.typhi reaches the blood, it is transported to the organs and tissues of the body and can live with the host cells and thus minimal effect from the immune system. The symptoms of typhoid include high fever reaching a high of 104 Fahrenheit, rash on the abdominal and neck regions having rose-colored spots and vomiting. Constipation. Headaches and diarrhea are also symptomatic to typhoid (Feasey Gordon, 2013). Paratyphoid caused by another strain of salmonella called Salmonella enterica has similar symptoms, and patients suffer similar severity. Diagnosis involves the analysis of samples of blood, urine, bone marrow or stool to detect the presence of Salmonella typhimurium. The most and perhaps only treatment of typhoid is the use of antibiotics. Two major antibiotics that have been used are ceftriaxone and ciprofloxacin. Drinking clean, safe water is also a way to treat the adversity of the disease. Prevention has now been advocated for and the following recommended Fruits and vegetables eaten raw should be avoided or peel the fruit personally. When traveling to typhoid prone areas vaccination should be administered. Exercise total avoidance of street foods In the recent times, most bacteria have been reported to be resistant to antibiotics. Typhoid has become resistant to the traditionally administered antibiotics of ampicillin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Another essential medication of the disease ciprofloxacin has also been reported to face a 35% resistance from Typhimurium. Research also shows that the bacterium can live with macrophages a part of the immune system in the host tissues making it difficult for the immune system to eliminate it (Feasey, 2013). During treatment and finding of the source of outbreaks, care must be taken to include the asymptomatic carriers. Their bodies have the ability to harbor the bacterium without them suffering or showing the symptoms. They, therefore, could infect others without being noticed.

Book Review Barbara Kingsolvers Animal Vegetable Miracle

Book review: Animal, Vegetable, Miracle by Barbara Kingsolver Barbara Kingsolver was already an established novelist when she moved from drought-ridden Arizona to her family farm in Virginia, as chronicled in her book Animal, Vegetable, Miracle. Kingsolver was determined to go totally local by growing her own food and only consuming foods grown locally and in season. The ultimate goal of Kingsolvers experiment was to have a zero carbon footprint. This meant eschewing citrus fruit flown in from Florida and California and selecting locally-grown rhubarb instead; collecting her own chicken eggs, and killing her own turkeys. Kingsolver was unimpressed by going organic, given the extent to which corporations dominated the organic industry and she was unimpressed by vegetarianisms argument that it offered a more sustainable lifestyle. Im unimpressed by arguments that condemn animal harvest...while ignoring, wholesale, the animal killing that underwrites vegetal foods Kingsolver writes (Kin gsolver 222). Pesticides, she points out, kill animals to ensure that we have vegetables and soy burgers. Kingsolver is mainly known as a novelist but uses a multi-dimensional approach to address the contentious issue of what is the best way to eat in her resulting memoir. She includes diary entrees by her teenage daughter Camille Kingsolver who was forced to participate in her mothers experiment as well as her husbands scientific views of locavorism and the pro-organic movement.

The Slave Community Essay - 1159 Words

John. W. Blessingame, The Slave Community: The Plantation Life in The Antebellum South (Oxford University Press, Inc: 1972, 1979). John Wesley Blassingame was a scholar, historian, educator, writer, and leading pioneer in the study of American slavery. He received a bachelors degree at Fort Balley State College in 1969, a masters degree at Howard University in 1961, and a doctorate at Yale University in 1971. He then became a history professor at his alma mater in 1974 at Yale University. He was a professor of history, African-American studes, and American Studies for 29 years. His repatoir of books that he has written and published include: The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South, Black New Orleans 1860-1880,†¦show more content†¦In the first chapter he talks about the enslavement process. He discusses in depth that the process was extremely painful and humiliating, yet their culture and heritage was not left in Africa. The slaves remained true t o their heritage by taking with them their native dances, language, religion, songs or spitituals, and folk tales. The second chapter discusses the changes that took place because of the presence of a different culture. Blessingame points out that acculturation, meaning the the process of adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of another group, was inevitable. It is stated that the influence of the slaves upon the American culture was very prominent as well as the American culture effecting the African culture. Blessingame points out, however, that their was a distinct African slave culture that emerged from the African culture, the American culture, and the culture of the slaves that was distinct among them all. The third chapter discusses the distinct cultures of the slaves and their self preservation. It seems, that the most outstanding tradition that was mentioned was the spirituals. These songs gave them a sense of hope and belonging that brought them joy and a commonality between them all. Through these songs they expressed their hopes, dreams, love, courage,religion, and oppression. In chapter four, Blessingame discusses the slave family. He points out the importance of the family unit in order to provide a safety net fromShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Book The Creation Of Mammy 2296 Words   |  10 Pagesmodifications and conflicting perceptions can spin into stereotypes that can be mistaken as fact, instead of fiction. One of Southern history’s most common know stereotype is of the black Mammy. This paper will discuss the depiction of the African-American slave mythological figure - Mammy, and also her opposing character, Jezebel. Mammy’s origins are deeply embedded in the antebellum American South. Historians and scholars state clearly that the Mammy and Jezebel characters are and were fictional, but howRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Slave Community 1127 Words   |  5 Pages John W. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. In the book titled The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South, author John Blassingame’s theme, focused on the history of African slave experience throughout the American South. After much research, the author said in the preface that most historians focused more on the planter instead of the slave. He also pointed out that most of the research on slaves by previous historiansRead MoreThe Definition of Family in Slave Communities Essay1488 Words   |  6 Pagesthe definition of family within slave communities because the slave definition of family not only changed from plantation to plantation, but also slave to slave. Upon reading the secondary sources, â€Å"The Shaping of the Afro-American Family,† by Steven Mintz, Susan Kellogg, Marriage in Slavery, by Brenda Stevenson, and â€Å"Motherhood in Slavery† by Stephanie Shaw, and the primary sources WPA Interviews of former slaves conducted in the 1930s. Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives fro m the Federal WritersRead MoreEssay on The Confined Voices of Female Slaves1690 Words   |  7 PagesThe Confined Voices of Female Slaves Slave narratives provide a first-hand experience on slave lives and reveal the truth about slavery. Through the writing of narratives, slaves hoped to expose the cruel and inhumane aspects of slavery and their struggles, sorrows, and triumphs. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, slave narratives were important means of opening a dialogue between blacks and whites about slavery and freedom. Some slave narratives were crafted to enlighten whiteRead MoreIt Is Widely Known That Slavery Is A Brutal, Cruel, And1709 Words   |  7 Pagespassively â€Å"born† to be slaves were not only required to perform endless labor, but also tortured, suppressed and bestially destroyed in numerous heartless ways — physically and mentally. However, a few decades before the outbreak of the civil war, it was barely possible for the people in the north to know about the details of how the slaves lived in the south due to several factors such as the limit of communications. Fortunately, Fredrick Douglass, an educated run-away slave, published â€Å"The NarrativeRead MoreJohn Gast s American Progress1450 Words   |  6 Pagessettling the new territory was meant for free men and that the institution of slavery had no place there, clearly illustrated in â€Å"American Progress†. In the South, many politicians argued for instituting slavery in Western territories to create more slave states in order to increase Southern political influence. These conflicting beliefs resulted in intense political disputes that in many cases turned newly settled lands into battlefields. This clash of differing views regarding American expansion isRead MoreColor Complex Essay753 Words   |  4 PagesThe â€Å"Color Complex† and It’s Persisting Effects on the Black Community As African Americans came to the United States the â€Å"color complex† was implemented upon them by their white captors. The â€Å"color complex† became a means for which white slave owners could divide and conquer their black slaves. With black slaves outnumbering whites on many southern colonies as well as in many of the Caribbean islands, such as Haiti, whites realized that they needed to divide their captors against each other.Read More Religious and Spiritual Practices of Enslaved African Americans1737 Words   |  7 PagesThe Community of Enslaved Africans and their Religious Spiritual Practices. During a most dark and dismal time in our nations history, we find that the Africans who endured horrible circumstances during slavery, found ways of peace and hope in their religious beliefs. During slavery, Africans where able to survive unbearable conditions by focusing on their spirituality. Christianity was amongst the slave community. Being that the vast majority of the slave community was born in America, convertingRead MoreFrederick Douglass, An American Slave And From Song Of Myself927 Words   |  4 Pagesin the past it permitted slavery to take place. Freedom for African Americans in the United States had been fought for many years. Freedom is key to the quality of life of an individual. Throughout the Narrative of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave and From Song of Myself the narrator we can see that a persons freedom is what gives them the purpose to live. Through the narrative of Frederick Douglas, we can see how he fights to attain freedom. Song of Myself was published in 1855, this was aRead MoreSlave Culture810 Words   |  4 Pageswill always be particularly remembered for the cruelty it exhibited. Up until 1865 slaves were imported in shiploads and treated as if they were merely cattle. On the farms slaves were given no mercy and had to work long, ar duous days for nothing. Additionally they were often subject to cruel overseers who would beat and whip them on a regular basis. As brutal and destructive as the institution of slavery was, slaves were not defenseless victims. Through their families, and religion, as well as more

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William Shakespeare s The Bastard Of Gloucester Essay

Hobbes’ description of this restless desire for power proves to be consistent with the actions that Regan and, especially, Goneril take throughout the play. Not satisfied with only the power that comes along with ruling a sector of the kingdom, Regan and Goneril each seek to win the heart of Edmund, the bastard of Gloucester who is granted the title of Earl of Gloucester following his betrayal of his father to Regan’s husband, the Duke of Cornwall. The desire to take Edmund’s hand in marriage, thereby claiming a stake in the land that Edmund governs, resulted from Edmund’s seduction of each of the two sisters as part of his own plot to eventually claim the entire kingdom of Britain for himself. Thus, a parallel occurs throughout the play as Goneril, Regan, and Edmund each seek the aggrandizement of their own power, as Hobbes claimed all humans desire, creating a twisted triangle of seduction and betrayal. The competing desires of the sisters ultimately leads to a devastating end, a finale which Hobbes easily could have predicted. He writes, if any two men desire the same thing, which neverthelesse they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies; and in the way to their End, (which is principally their owne conservation, and sometimes their delectation only), endeavour to destroy, or subdue one an other (184). Goneril and Regan continue to serve as models of Hobbes’ philosophy on power as their competing desire for Edmund and his land soon turns to jealousy, with GonerilShow MoreRelatedBlindness Of King Lear By William Shakespeare1077 Words   |  5 PagesMona Rupani ENG4U March-9- 2015 How is the theme of blindness explored in King Lear? The play King Lear, written by William Shakespeare, the theme of blindness is clearly illustrated in the characters of King Lear and Gloucester. Both characters are blind to the truth because of their unwariness and poor judgment of character. These two characters refused to see the truth about the ones that are loyal to them. This type of blindness in this play is mental. Mental blindness can also beRead MoreSight and Blindness in King Lear1615 Words   |  7 Pagessight and blindness associated with the characters of Lear and Gloucester illustrate the theme of self-knowledge and consciousness that exist in the play. These classic tropes are inverted in King Lear, producing a situation in which those with healthy eyes are ignorant of what is going on around them, and those without vision appear to see the clearest. While Lears blindness is one which is metaphorical, the blindness of Gloucester, who carries the parallel plot of the play, is literal. NeverthelessRead MoreExamining the Villainous Characters of Shakespeares King Lear871 Words   |  4 PagesKing Lear by William Shakespeare is one of the ionic plays that depict behavior of mankind as either good or bad. As one of the earliest plays to show cast good vs. evil, King Lear paved the way for other such symbolic plays to written. Goneril, Regan, and Edmund, three of the characters from Shakespeare’s King Lear, are symbols of evil with in human society to its greatest entity. These three are the most highlighted villains in the play. A villain is a bad or evil person, usually the antagonistRead MoreFamily Ties : William Shakespeare s King Lear1258 Words   |  6 PagesFamily Ties At the heart of the play King Lear by William Shakespeare lies the theme of the relationship between father and child. Lear and Cordelia’s relationship is strong and it is very different than the relationship between Lear, and Cordelia’s sisters, Goneril and Reagan. Lear and Cordelia have different views of what is important in the world, these different views is what ultimately causes their bond to break. The separation of Lear and Cordelia ultimately causes a rift in the play and conflictRead MoreKing Lear Character Analysis1258 Words   |  6 Pagesmany of the characters this expected attitude is only portrayed through a few of them. When this attitude is not portrayed it is not looked upon as odd or out of character it is almost normalized. The king goes mad, Kent’s breaking of a stereotype, Gloucester is naà ¯ve nature, Edmunds superb manipulation, and the fool is the most knowledgeable of all. The first is the king. He goes mad, completely loses all sense of sanity. â€Å"Nature’s above art in that respect. There’s your press/ money. ThatRead MoreEssay about The Theme of Justice in King Lear1682 Words   |  7 PagesThe Theme of Justice in King Lear      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Many themes are evident in King Lear, but perhaps one of the most prevalent relates to the theme of justice.   Shakespeare has developed a tragedy that allows us to see mans decent into chaos.   Although Lear is perceived as a man more sinned against than sinning (p.62), the treatment of the main characters encourages the reader to reflect on the presence or lack of justice in this world.   The characters also vary in their inclinationRead MoreExamples Of Respect And Honesty In King Lear1320 Words   |  6 Pages this expected attitude is only portrayed through a few of them. When this attitude of respect and honesty is not portrayed, it is not looked upon as odd or out of character, it is almost normalized. The king goes mad, Kent breaks a stereotype, Gloucester is naà ¯ve nature, Edmund as a master of manipulation, and the fool portraying the most knowledgeable of all. The first character to whose attitude portrays this oddity is the king. King Lear goes mad, he completely loses all sense of sanityRead More Lack of Judgment by King Lear Essay1323 Words   |  6 Pagesplay written by William Shakespeare that focuses on the relationships of many characters, some good, and some evil.   This is a great tragedy that is full of injustice at the beginning and the restoration of justice towards the end.   The good are misjudged as evil and the evil are accepted as good.   It is not until the end of the play that the righteous people are recognized as such.   There is great treachery and deceit involved in the hierarchy of English rule. King Lear and Gloucester both make greatRead MoreAnnotated King Lear1417 Words   |  6 Pages(2002): 191.  Literary Reference Center. Web. 14 Mar. 2013. Neville F. Newman â€Å"Shakespeare’s KING LEAR.† In this article Nevilles key ideas are focused on the aspect of fathering. He makes connections between the fathering patterns of Lear, Gloucester and Cornwall. He starts with describing Regans reasoning for Edgars recent behavior. She states that his behavior is at the fault of King Lears 100 knights. â€Å"Was he not companion with the riotous knights that tend upon my father?†(2.1.94-95)Read MoreWilliam Shakespeare s King Lear1611 Words   |  7 Pagesexperience life-changing events that jeopardize our sense of identity and make us question how we value ourselves. Our perception of our worth can change with what we learn through our existence, much like the characters in the play King Lear by William Shakespeare. Adversity and hardship are inevitable when characters are unable to connect themselves within their own identity or find a loss of self at some point in their role. The self-awareness, an essential aspect of their role, of many of the characters

Alibr Essay Free Essays

Belonging Essay: â€Å"Sometimes it is hard to balance belonging to a group with keeping one’s own individual identity. † How has your study of the prescribed test and two texts of your own choosing either supported or conflicted with this idea? An essential element of belonging is one’s identity as it provides an understanding of the group to which one belongs. However, it is often difficult to retain one’s individuality while belonging to a particular community. We will write a custom essay sample on Alibr Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now This difficulty is evident in Sara Gavron’s film â€Å"Brick Lane† and Shaun Tan’s â€Å"Stick Figures† (Tales From Outer Suburbia), where both composer’s highlight the loss of individuality as a result of group conformation. In contrast, William Shakespeare’s play â€Å"As You Like It† demonstrates the converse as it highlights that it is possible to balance belonging to group while keeping one’s unique identity. As a result, by comparing the exploration of all three composers, a responder can enhance their understanding of the influences that affect one’s sense of belonging and identity. As one becomes part of a group an understanding of their own unique identity can often be enriched. This is evident in William Shakespeare’s play â€Å"As You like It† through Orlando, whose development of a sense of familial belonging empowers his own self-understanding. This is evident through the contrast between Orlando’s initial dejected state and final sense of status. This is evident through Orlando’s early despondence in the play in â€Å"in this world I fill up a place, which may be better supplied when I have made it empty. The impersonal tone associated with ‘a place’ alludes to Orlando’s own feeling of alienation and isolation as a result of a lack of connection with others. This is reinforced through the hollow connotations of ‘empty’ which accentuate Orlando’s lack of understanding of himself. However, this is contrasted with the conclusion of the play, as Orlando develops his sense of familial belongi ng with his brother Oliver. This sense of empowerment is evident in â€Å"you have my consent† where Orlando’s dominance is evidence through his approval of his brother’s wishes. This emphasises his enhanced status and identity, solely a result of his sense of belonging. As a result it can be seen that it is Orlando’s belonging to a group that nourishes his sense of identity. Antithetically, when a responder considers Sara Gavron’s film â€Å"Brick Lane† the converse of Shakespeare’s exploration becomes prominent. This evident when considering the character of Karim, a London-born Pakistani man. As a result of Karim’s cultural and religious heritage, he experiences a sense of alienation from the wider community as evident in â€Å"Go home Paki! † The derogatory term of ‘Paki’ compounded with the incensed tone created through the exclamation, Gavron demonstrates Karim’s social alienation. It is this isolation that yields his identity as evident in â€Å"this is my home. † The blunt nature of Karim’s statement highlights his resoluteness and confidence with his own unique multicultural self. Despite this, Karim’s identity begins to waver as he becomes part of a Muslim group that fights for understanding. This is evident through the contrast in costuming used by Gavron. Initially, she characterises Karim in a combination of western and Pakistani clothes, but as he joins the group, these western elements begin to disappear. This results in Karim conforming to the dress code of the other group members, implying the loss of his own unique identity as a result of his belonging. Hence, Gavron, unlike Shakespeare emphasises that one’s sense of identity can be lost through their connection with a group. In certain situations it is often difficult to retain a sense of unique identity while being part of a group. This is elucidated in Shaun Tan’s â€Å"Stick Figures† where the Stick Figures are shown to be alienated from their homeland due to industrialization. Tan emphasises that by belonging to this group of isolated individuals, a person can lose their sense of identity in â€Å"faceless clod. † The How to cite Alibr Essay, Essay examples

Pragmatics Deixis and Conversational Implicature Essay Example For Students

Pragmatics Deixis and Conversational Implicature Essay 1.1 The concept of deictic centreDeixis deals with the words and expressions whose reference relies entirely on the circumstances of the utterance. For that reason these special expressions and their meaning in discourse can only be understood in light of these circumstances. The term deictic centre underlines that the deictic term has to relate to the situation exactly at the point where the utterance is made or the text is written. One could even say that the deictic centre is the unmarked anchorage point from which the utterance is made. To decode the meaning of a sentence we use a navigation system. In our day-to-day conversational exchanges, the speaker does not consciously use deictic expressions, as well as the adressee usually understands the utterance immediately (meaning that the adressee does not need much time to think about an utterance before understanding the message). Deixis makes discourse easier and more effective, giving us a means to pass more information in less time. Nevertheless, there are certain situations making an interpretation difficult or even impossible, mostly when we only get chunks of information and therefore lack context. If, for example, a person tells a story and forgets to give the essential information a deictic term refers to, we will grow aware of the weakness the deictic system features. Or if the fax machine just receives the second page of a letter, beginning with Then he was quite embarrassed about it the adressee will never be able to guess what then, he and it stands for. Similar gaps arise if we read about an utterance made in the p ast and lack information about the references. Although the adressee at that time could easily have understood the sense, we may not be capable of getting the original meaning. Even if we knew the context in detail, this might not be sufficient to understand discourse, for example if a special gesture is made when pointing at a building while saying: I lived there two years ago. 1.2 Linguistic categoriesThe Greek origin of the term deixis meaning pointing via language already hints at its function. According to Yule (1996:9), Deixis is clearly a form of referring that is tied to the speakers context. This again leads us to the concept of deictic centre. The deictic centre can be divided into certain sub-centres. 1. Central person (speaker): Personal pronouns, I (Speaker), you (Addresse)2. Central time (coding time): Adverbs of time, now and then3. Central place (the location of the speaker): Adverbs of space, here and there 4. Discourse centre (the point of the speakers discourse): Adverbs of time and place, conjunctions5. Social centre (the speakers social status relative to the Adressees) Next we can distinguish between proximal terms (like here, now, this near to the speaker) and distal terms (like there, then, that away from the speaker). It is important to note that in context of deixis and grammar, when direct speech is shifted into indirect speech, the proximal forms also shift into the corresponding distal forms. Compare the two following sentences:You were here this morning?I asked him whether he had been there that morning. In contrast to the effect of immediateness proximal deictic forms create, the reported speech utterance normally makes the original speech event seem more remote. In the following section, I shall discuss some forms of deixis in detail. Person deixisThese seemingly simple forms are sometimes quite tricky in their use. Children often have problems using personal pronouns. The three pronouns from first to third person I, you and he, she, it are in many languages elaborated with markers of relative social status (social deixis). Expressions indicating a higher social status are called honorifics. In German or French, there is a special social aspect about a familiar form of you (Du/tu) and an unfamiliar one (Sie/Vous). The use of either one form gives us information about the speakers view of his relationship to the addressee. Third person terms are usually more distant terms. Today they sometimes may serve ironic purposes ( Should I clean the dishes for her majesty?), and they can also be used to make a potentially personal issue seem like an impersonal one, e.g. if I want someone to do me a favour. Spatial deixis Spatial deictic terms indicate the relative location of people and things (here, there). Interesting about the use is the aspect of deictic projection: Speakers often refer to physically distant locations like home using here, as if they still were in that location. Moreover, modern technology allows us to utter seemingly impossible sentences like I am not here at the moment on an answering machine. Yet another shift takes place when I tell a story quoting direct speech, as here or there have to be understood relative to the place my story takes place. Temporal deixis Now is indicating both the time coinciding with the speakers utterance and the time of the addressee hearing these words. Then may either refer to past and future actions relative to the moment where it is uttered (deictic centre). Deictic expressions like yesterday, tomorrow, today, next week etc. have to be separated from non-deictical temporal references such as local time. Showing similarities to the notion of spatial deixis, the remote form in temporal deixis can be used to communicate not only distance from current time, but also distance from current reality or facts. 1.3. May we come in, sir?We refers to a group of at least two persons that the speaker belongs to. In this case the exclusive we (addressee does not belong to group) should be suggested more likely (Person deixis). Sir implies that the addressee has at least the same social status as the speaker or probably even a higher status relative to the group (Social deixis). The action of coming in involves a certain place, or, to be more precise, two places (Spatial deixis): One where the speaker is situated at the moment of his utterance, and one where he requests to go. As this sentence seems typical of our everyday life politeness, it is not very difficult to find a situation where it could have been uttered, e.g. a group of pupils visiting their teacher at his home. 2 Introduction: The notion of implicature How is it that we can convey meanings which we do not actually state? To solve this problem which we are not aware of as a problem in our day-to-day conversational exchanges pragmatics uses the notion of implicature. The concept of implicature is so salient because it explains how it is possible to mean more than what is actually said by the single words. Implicature bridges the gap between what is literally said and what is meant, suggested, what is implied. By contrast, a semantic theory is based on the belief that natural language expressions tend to have simple, stable and unitary senses so that consequently, a semantic theory will never be able to give full account of how we use language in our conversations (cf. Levinson 1983: 99). Specal Ed Observation EssayBefore providing some examples, there is another basic remark on implicatures I must mention, namely that they do not inevitably have to be conversational implicatures. Defining the term implicature more precisely, one can distinguish conversational implicature from conventional implicature. Conventional implicatures arise from expressions which, taken by themselves, implicate certain states of the world that cannot be attributed to our use of language. They are not derived from pragmatic principles like the maxims, but are simply attached by convention to particular lexical items or expressions. ExamplesA: Why do you want to leave the company?B: Because I know that our situation soon will be devastating.If B wants to observe the quality maxim, he must not only be convinced about his utterance being true, but also know that there is clear proof of what he is claiming. If he lacks adequate evidence, he better should mark this by using a cautious note (hedg es) I dont know or sure, but. A: How do we get those seven persons back there?B: I own one old car. Observing the quantity maxim, this also means that B does not have more than one car. A: I wont describe every single minute, but it was a great game.A shows that he is conscious of the quantity maxim, making use of hedges. A: Can you tell me how to get to the university?B: There is a petrol station just some hundred metres away.B does not know where the university is located. Still, he observes the maxim of relevance by giving a hint where the driver could get better information. A: I know this sounds a little obscure, but I did not notice you at all.Presupposing that A did not recognize a good friend, A still tries to show that he is trying to observe the maxims. A: Did I call you too early?B: Oh, I love getting up at six in the morningBy blatantly flouting the first maxim, B implies that his utterance has to be interpreted in quite a different way (and furthermore, that his question was quite unnecessary). A: Seems they are going to lose this match.B: Dont forget about our goalie. Hes top of the league.Everybody knows that the goalkeeper is not very skilled, thus B obviously flouts the maxim of quality, hinting at a sarcastic meaning. A: You still use this car, honestly?B: Well, its got four wheels and a steering wheel.In this case, B is flouting the maxim of quantity, of manner and even of relevance, as he says something A already knows before B answers his question (giving more information than necessary), being neither brief nor he avoiding obscurity, and not responding directly to As question. One could translate Bs utterance into: Dont make such a fuss, the car is in a good condition.A: Can you tell us about your teams line-up next Sunday?B: Sure. There will be eleven players.The coach is flouting the maxim of quantity, giving less information than required. He is tired of the journalists always asking the same questions that he must not answer. A: Did I tell you, Graham Potter finally got this job in Glasgow?B: The lobster is delicious, darling.Flouting the maxim of relevance, B tells her husband that she definitely does not want to talk about his job or his colleagues. A: And then, after all we have been through, he did not notice me at allB: Oops, right at the back there is a spot on your dressAgain flouting the maxim of relevance, B possibly warns her girlfriend that the guy she has been talking about is approaching. A: I could invite you for dinner tomorrow.B: Your girlfriend is doing well, is she?Flouting the third maxim, B reminds her admirer that he should be faithful. A: Rumour has it that you had an affair with this woman.B: I do not claim that this question is unjustified.B is flouting the maxim of manner, thus indicating that there was an affair, but he does not dare to admit things. A: Tell me about your last match!B: It came quite close to playing tennisB played his worst tennis and uses a flouting of the last maxim to indicate this. 2.3 The process of flouting in detailIn this section I shall take a closer look at one of my examples, making explicit the types of knowledge required for the implicatures to be worked out. A: Oops, did I call you too early?B: Oh, I love getting up at six in the morningThis flout exploits the maxim of quality as the speaker says something which is blatantly untrue. Assuming cooperation, the listener is forced to look for another plausible interpretation. His line of thought (as well as the speakers codification process shortly before uttering his sentence) might work like this:1. B has expressed pleasure at being disturbed early in the morning (utterance X)2. But normally people in our society do not like this. 3. So why is B uttering X?4. I cannot assume that B is violating the cooperative principle, namely he tries to deceive me. 5. I also do not think that Bs sentence is entirely pointless. 6. As 3 and 4 are not true, B must be trying to put across some other proposition7. Is there a related meaning Bs utterance hints at?8. In this case, the only obviously related proposition is the exact opposite of the one B has expressed. 9. Therefore the only plausible explanation is that B is quite annoyed at me calling this early. 10. I will accept this meaning unless context hints at a more persuasive interpretation3 ReferencesGrice, H. Paul. 1975. Logic and conversation. In: Cole, P. and J. Morgan (eds.). Pragmatics. (Syntax and Semantics 9). New York: Academic Press, 41-58Levinson, Stephen. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge UPMey, Jacob. 1993. Pragmatics: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell. Thomas, Jenny. 1995. Meaning and Interaction. An Introduction to Pragmatics. London:Longman. Yule, George. 1996. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford UP